Spanking can cause which of the following consequences?

• A. Severe physical and psychological injury and interference with effective parent-child interaction.
• B. Only physical injury.
• C. Improved parent-child communication.
• D. No effect on the relationship.

Answer: (A)

Spanking can cause harm on two fronts: the child’s safety and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Physically, hitting a child can lead to injuries ranging from minor to serious, and in some cases can be dangerous especially with younger children or repeated incidents. Psychologically, it can foster fear, anxiety, and a diminished sense of trust in the caregiver, and it may model aggression as a problem-solving approach. When a child feels unsafe or emotionally distressed, the parent–child interaction tends to become less warm and responsive, making communication less effective and the relationship more strained. That combination—physical harm plus disruption of the emotional bond and interaction—captures the broad and serious consequences spanking can have. The other options don’t fit because they either underestimate the harm (only physical injury), claim benefits that aren’t supported by evidence (improved communication), or assert no impact on the relationship, which contradicts observed effects on attachment and interaction.